A Brief History of English

English evolved over many centuries. To appreciate its complexity, its changing vocabulary, its often eccentric rules and confusing spellings, it is helpful to appreciate how English developed. In the fifth century English emerged from the various dialects of the Germanic invaders of the British Isles who conquered the Native Celts and established Anglo-Saxon culture in England.

Old English: The Anglo-Saxon or Old English speakers formed a society centered on sailing, farming, and fighting. Political power during the Old English era (450AD to 1100AD) shifted among several regions that divided central Britain. Old English vocabulary was basically Germanic, but it was influenced by Latin after the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity in the seventh century. The church influenced English methods of government and established a tradition of literacy in English.

These opening lines of Beowulf are written in Old English followed by a modern English version:

Hwaet, we Gard-dena in geardagum, theo cyninga thrym gefrunon, hu that aethlingas ellen fremedon! Oft Scyld scefing sceanthena threatum, monegum maefthum meodestla ofteah, egsode eorlas, synthan aerest wearth feasceaft funden; he theas frofre gebad

Lo, we have heard of the glory of the people-kings of the spear-Danes in days of yore, how the nobles performed deeds of valor! Oft Scyld Scefing tore away the meadhouses from the troops of the enemies, from many tribes, terrified the warriors, since he was first found poor;

Middle English: Middle English dates from the conquest of England by the Norman French in 1066. Following this political event, English became a substratum language. First Norman then Parisian French functioned as the official language of the nation -- the language of the church, government, and the social elite. French was reinforced by Latin, then the language of Christianity. English persisted as a language spoken widely in the countryside and poor urban districts. Beginning in the 13th century and continuing into the 14th century, English began to recapture its dominant position.

During this period, English expanded rapidly, adding many new words. While the pronunciation changed little from Old English, the grammar went through major changes, as did spelling.

These opening lines from Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales are written in Middle English followed by a modern English version:

Whan that Aprille with his shouwers sote The droughte of Marche hath perced to the rote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which vertu engendered is the flour; Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hat in the Ram his halfe course y-ronne

When April with its showers sweet had pierced the drought of March to the root, and bathed every vein with such liquor, from which engendered with life is the flower; When the God of Spring also with his sweet breath had breathed life into the tender growth in every wood and meadow, and the young sun has run his half-course in the sign of the Ram

Modern English: Two hundred years after Chaucer, we have the English of Shakespeare. Although some spelling, vocabulary, and definitions are elusive, the average reader can understand its basic message without a "translation":

O that this too too solid flesh would melt, Thaw and resolve itself into a dew! Or that the Everlasting had not fix'd His canon 'gainst self-slaughter! Oh God! God! How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable Seem to me all the uses of this world.

Two hundred years after Shakespeare, the writers of the Declaration of Independence began a new chapter in the development of English. The vocabulary and spelling are more familiar. Notice that capitalization was used not only to indicate proper nouns but to emphasize key words:

We hold these rights to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.

Modern American English has emerged as the dominant form of English in most of the world. There are some differences in vocabulary, spelling, and grammar between English spoken in the United States and Great Britain and its former dominions.

English has become the international language. Half the business meetings conducted on the European continent are conducted in English. Over 80% of the information stored in the world's computers is written in English. English is the official language of aviation, so that when an Italian airliner flies from Naples to Milan, pilots and air traffic controllers communicate in English. English has grown from a language spoken on a single European island to become the language of the global economy.